[70][71][72], Under the 'Great Pompeii Project' over 2.5km (1.6mi) of ancient walls within the city were relieved of danger of collapse by treating the unexcavated areas behind the street fronts in order to increase drainage and reduce the pressure of groundwater and earth on the walls, a problem especially in the rainy season. Over time, they decayed, leaving voids that archaeologists found could be used as moulds to make plaster casts of unique, and often gruesome, figures in their final moments of life. [42], In about 64, Nero and his wife Poppaea visited Pompeii and made gifts to the temple of Venus (the city's patron deity),[43] probably when he performed in the theatre of Naples.[44]. [107], There were at least 31 bakeries in the town, each with wood-burning ovens, millstones and a sales counter. Minors are still allowed entry only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.[119]. The Garum workshop[113] made the sauce obtained from the fermentation of the entrails of fish; in the building some containers were found, closed by lids, with the sauce inside while in the nearby garden there was a large deposit of amphorae. [69] Maiuri made the last excavations on a grand scale in the 1950s, and the area south of the Via dell'Abbondanza and the city wall was almost completely uncovered, but they were poorly documented scientifically. The soils surrounding Mount Vesuvius preceding its eruption have been revealed to have had good water-retention capabilities, implying productive agriculture. A 2012 study recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site as a cost-effective method of improving its conservation and preservation in the short term. The nearby cities of Herculaneum and Nuceria were also affected. From the outbreak of the Second Punic War (218201 BC) in which Hannibal's invasion threatened many cities, Pompeii remained faithful to Rome unlike many of the southern cities. Like the Greeks, the Etruscans did not conquer the city militarily, but simply controlled it and Pompeii enjoyed a sort of autonomy. 86, No. in the forum. [41], Some buildings like the Central Baths were only started after the earthquake and were built to enhance the city with modern developments in their architecture, as had been done in Rome, in terms of wall-heating and window glass, and with well-lit spacious rooms. Modern archaeologists have excavated garden sites and urban domains to reveal the agricultural staples of Pompeii's economy. The excavated areas in the north and south were connected. The audience consisted only of the film's production crew and some local children. [57], Over the following centuries, its name and location were forgotten, though it still appeared on the Tabula Peutingeriana of the 4th century. The Modestus bakery,[108] or House of the Oven, was the largest in the city and Sotericus's bakery, also among the largest, preserves the room for kneading bread.[109]. [31] Many farms and villas were built nearby, outside the city and many have been excavated. 479523, who convincingly argues that the splendidly decorated hospitium south of Pompeii was built for this occasion. [citation needed]. In 2014, UNESCO headquarters received a new management plan intended to help integrate management, conservation, and maintenance programs at the property.[93]. [88], Owing to its wealth and its Greek, Etruscan and Roman history, Pompeii is of great interest for the study of Roman architecture in terms of building methods and urban planning. [89][90], Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. The forum and many public and private buildings of high architectural quality were built, including The Large Theatre, the Temple of Jupiter, the Basilica, the Comitium, the Stabian Baths and a new two-story portico.[27]. [15] Despite the political uncertainty of these events and the progressive migration of wealthy men to quieter cities in the eastern Mediterranean, Pompeii continued to flourish due to the production and trade of wine and oil with places like Provence and Spain,[26] as well as to intensive agriculture on farms around the city. Modestus Bakery and VII.1.37. [32] The carriage is made of bronze and black and red wooden panels, with engraved metal medallions at the back.[79][80][81]. The building suffered extensive damage in 1943 during the World War II bombings and again in 1980 due to an earthquake. Agricultural policymaker Columella suggested that each vineyard in Rome produced a quota of three cullei of wine per jugerum, otherwise the vineyard would be uprooted. Wool processing was well developed with 13 workshops that worked the raw material, 7 that did the spinning, 9 the dyeing and 18 the washing: the Building of Eumachia, from the name of the priestess who built it, was the wool market, or the seat of the fullers guild; construction took place after 62 and was entirely in brick work. [22] Under the Etruscans a primitive forum or simple market square was built, as well as the Temple of Apollo, in both of which objects including fragments of bucchero were found by Maiuri. [11] The city bordered the coastline, though today it is 700m (2,300ft) away. [63], Karl Weber directed the first scientific excavations. In AD 59, there was a serious riot and bloodshed in the amphitheatre between Pompeians and Nucerians (which is recorded in a fresco) and which led the Roman senate to send the Praetorian Guard to restore order and to ban further events for a period of ten years. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger's account of the eruption by calling similar events "Plinian". There was much progress in exploration when the French occupied Naples in 1799 and ruled over Italy from 1806 to 1815. Expansion of the city from an early nucleus (the old town) accelerated already from 450 BC under the Greeks after the battle of Cumae.[12]. [16] Greek and Phoenician sailors used the location as a safe port. [54] He visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year[55] but no work was done on recovery. P. G. Guzzo, "Alla ricerca della Pompei sannitica," in, Dionysius of Halicarnassus: Roman Antiquities Book VII. The jacket of the single remix of the song features the plaster cast of a chained dog killed in Pompeii. His aqueduct passed through and under a large part of the city[59] and would have had to pass though many buildings and foundations, as still can be seen in many places today, but he kept quiet and nothing more came of the discovery. [105][106], An aqueduct provided water to the public baths, to more than 25 street fountains, and to many private houses (doms) and businesses. The street plan of the new areas was more regular and more conformal to Hippodamus's street plan. [118], Many artefacts from the buried cities are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. The city began to flourish, and maritime trade started with the construction of a small port near the mouth of the river. [23] Several houses were built with the so-called Tuscan atrium, typical of this people. 629694. The period between about 450375 BC witnessed large areas of the city being abandoned while important sanctuaries such as the Temple of Apollo show a sudden lack of votive material remains.[25]. The thermopolium of Vetutius Placidus[110] overlooked the street directly, had a counter and several dolia, as well as a room behind the shop where customers could eat their meals: the lararium with frescoes of the Lares and Mercury and Dionysus and a triclinium decorated in the third style may be of interest. Chaos followed the earthquake; fires caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake added to the panic. In the thermopolium of Asellina,[111] with three sales counters and a lararium with depictions of Mercury and Bacchus, numerous furnishings have been found, both in bronze and terracotta, as well as 683 sesterces; the external faade bears a representation of jugs and funnels and an electoral inscription referring to Asellina, probably the owner of the inn. The city became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or Southern Italy along the nearby Appian Way. As a result, an additional internal wall was built of tufa and the internal agger and outer faade raised resulting in a double parapet with wider wall-walk. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 8, Josephi Macrini, I. C. Neapolitani De Vesuvio. [76][75][77], In January 2021 a well-preserved "large, four-wheel ceremonial chariot" was uncovered by archaeologists headed by Massimo Osanna at a villa in Civita Giuliana,[78] north of Pompeii, where a stable had previously been discovered in 2018. [82] Its inscription records he achieved custodianship of the Temple of Venus and membership of the Augustales, priests of the Imperial Cult. M. Mastroroberto, "Una visita di Nerone a Pompei: le deversoriae tabernae di Moregine," in A. DAmbrosio, P. G. Guzzo and M. Mastroroberto (eds), Storie da uneruzione. [60], Herculaneum itself was rediscovered in 1738 by workmen digging for the foundations of a summer palace for the King of Naples, Charles of Bourbon. In 2020 many domus gardens, orchards and vineyards were carefully recreated using depictions in frescoes and archaeological finds to give better insights into what they were like before the catastrophe. Many of Sulla's veterans were given land and property in and around the city, while many of those who opposed Rome were dispossessed of their property. [34][35], The inhabitants of Pompeii had long been used to minor earthquakes (indeed, the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on 5 February 62[36] a severe earthquake did considerable damage around the bay, and particularly to Pompeii. The ancient city was included in the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund, and again in 1998 and in 2000. Many nearby buildings inside the walls were also destroyed. In 2021 an exceptional 1st c. AD painted tomb of a freed slave, Marcus Venerius Secundio, containing mummified human remains was discovered outside the Porta Sarno gate. "Pompeii" is a 2013 song by the British band Bastille. The World of Pompeii, Edited by John J. Dobbins and Pedar W. Foss. All but the dates could have been produced locally. The museum was closed to the public for 36 years before being reopened in 2016 as a space for temporary exhibitions. [86], The Schola Armatorum ('House of the Gladiators')[87] collapsed in 2010 caused by heavy rainfall and lack of proper drainage. Soon after the burial of the city, survivors and possibly thieves came to salvage valuables, including the marble statues from the forum and other precious materials from buildings. and the movie of the series. The result was that Pompeii became a Roman colony with the name of Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum. Many public buildings were built or refurbished and improved under the new order; new buildings included the Amphitheatre of Pompeii in 70 BC, the Forum Baths, and the Odeon, while the forum was embellished with the colonnade of Popidius before 80 BC. [64] He was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega, who was succeeded by his brother, Pietro, in 1804.[65]. This event was considered the first in the amphitheatre to feature an audience since the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius. Since then, except for targeted soundings and excavations, work was confined to the excavated areas. The city walls were reinforced in Sarno stone in the early 3rd century BC (the limestone enceinte, or the "first Samnite wall"). However, it was a relatively small provincial city and, except for the amphitheatre, it did not have large monuments on the scale of other Roman cities. He divided the city into the present nine areas (regiones) and blocks (insulae) and numbered the entrances of the individual houses (domus), so that each is identified by these three numbers. In December 2018, archaeologists discovered the remains of harnessed horses in the Villa of the Mysteries. An unknown number of discoveries were hidden away again. Thermopolia were inns or snack-bars in which hot food and drinks were sold and in Pompeii there were nearly 100. Alle origini dell'architettura ellenistica d'occidente. Under Augustus, from about 30 BC a major expansion in new public buildings, as in the rest of the empire, included the Eumachia Building, the Sanctuary of Augustus and the Macellum. From about 20 BC, Pompeii was fed with running water by a spur from the Serino Aqueduct, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. With the arrival of the Greeks in Campania from around 740 BC, Pompeii entered the orbit of the Hellenic people and the most important building of this period is the Doric Temple,[14] built away from the centre in what would later become the Triangular Forum. Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1863 and made greater progress. The amphitheatre has been cited by scholars as a model of sophisticated design, particularly in the area of crowd control. Catalogue NaplesBruxelles 20032004, 2003, pp. [88] The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. This technique is still in use today, with a clear resin now used instead of plaster because it is more durable, and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis.[67]. The new rulers gradually imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. The lyrics refer to the city and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. In 1819, when King Francis visited the Pompeii exhibition there with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he had it locked away in a "secret cabinet" (gabinetto segreto), a gallery within the museum accessible only to "people of mature age and respected morals". Spoleto, complesso monumentale di S. Nicol, 57 Novembre 2004, edited by M. Osanna and M. Torelli (Pisa, 2006), 227241. [15] The earliest settlement was focused in regions VII and VIII of the town (the old town) as identified from stratigraphy below the Samnite and Roman buildings, as well as from the different and irregular street plan. Pompeii is a 2014 German-Canadian historical disaster film produced and directed by Paul W. S. Further eruptions particularly in 471473 and 512 covered the remains more deeply. Anderson. The complete skeleton of an extremely small adult dog was also discovered, measuring only about 2025cm (7.99.8in) at the shoulder, which provides evidence of highly selective breeding of dogs in Roman times. Under Fiorelli's successors the entire west of the city was exposed. Arthur, P. (1986) "Problems of the urbanization of Pompeii: excavations 19801981". E. De Carolis, G. Patricelli and A. Ciarallo, 'Rinvenimenti di corpi umani nell'area urbana di Pompei', RStPomp, 1998, vol. As admiral of the fleet, Pliny the Elder had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at Misenum to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the 'Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei', have begun issuing new tickets that allow tourists to visit cities such as Herculaneum and Stabiae as well as the Villa Poppaea, to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii. The nutrient-rich lands near Pompeii were extremely efficient at this and were often able to exceed these requirements by a steep margin, therefore providing the incentive for local wineries to establish themselves. In 2018, these led to new discoveries in some previously unexplored areas of the city. It is, however, clear that by the time of the conquest by Sulla in 89 BC the development of the street layout was largely complete and most of the insulae were built up. [19] That such an impressive wall was built at this time indicates that the settlement was already important and wealthy. Pompeii is a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of Pompei. [3], Although best known for its Roman remains visible today, dating from AD 79, it was built upon a substantial city dating from much earlier times. [39][40] The public buildings on the east side of the forum were largely restored and were even enhanced by beautiful marble veneers and other modifications to the architecture. [6][7][8][9], Pompeii in Latin is a second declension masculine plural noun (Pompei, -rum). The Economy of Pompeii, Miko Flohr and Andrew Wilson, 2016, See W. O. Moeller, "The Riot of AD 59 at Pompeii," Historia, 1970, vol.