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The piezoelectric micro pump is a miniature, slim and lightweight diaphragm micro pump, which enables continuous micro fluid delivery. FAX +1 508 983 1401. Accoto D., Nedelcu O., Carrozza M., Dario P. Theoretical analysis and experimental testing of a miniature piezoelectric pump; Proceedings of the MHA98 1998 International Symposium on Micromechatronics and Human Science.-Creation of New Industry-(Cat. Another example of mechanical micro-pump is a thermal actuation micro-pump. Self priming, low noise, low power consumption and low electro-magnetic noise have been achieved. Bernacca G.M., OConnor B., Williams D.F., Wheatley D.J. This allows for greater force and higher performance overall. Similar to the macro-scale pumps, where the valves are operating by external forces, there is availability in micro-pumps to utilize those valves, known as active valves [28]. This miniature diaphragm pump is driven by a piezoelectric element and its driver board is built-in into the pump. 66 Kakitsubata, Narumi-cho, Midori-ku, In mechanical micro-pumps, the physical actuator propels the fluid from the inlet to the outlet. As a result, a tensile stress and bending moment at the piezo and piezo-glass double layer are exerted, which move the pump membrane to the downward direction. G,sands are given as: The other component of the pump is the piezoelectric material. At the second step, the piezoelectric disc moves downwards with respect to the chamber. Note 3: If the flow rate decreases with the above tubing, please use the larger tubing available. This study includes the experimental validation of numerical simulations using the measured flow rates of a micro-pump from the literature and is the first study, which investigates the effect of various parameters on the performance of the introduced piezoelectric micro-pump. There is an optimum condition for the width and attack angle of the valves. As can be seen, the changes in the attack angle of the outlet valve can dramatically change the efficiency of the pump. Van Lintel H., Van de Pol F., Bouwstra S. A piezoelectric micropump based on micromachining of silicon. One of the advantages of a piezoelectric micropump is the simplicity of the technology. Guo S., Nakamura T., Fukuda T., Oguro K. Design and experiments of micro pump using ICPF actuator; Proceedings of the MHS96 Seventh International Symposium on Micro Machine and Human Science; Nagoya, Japan. Micropumps are essential in the healthcare industry and are often found in the equipment that enables healthcare professionals to make their diagnoses. Electroactive polymer (EAP) actuatorsBackground review. There is an increase in the pressure of the pump chamber when the membrane moves downwards. PMC legacy view The first and second steps are shown in Figure 1, respectively. The other major parameter is the length of the piezo component. Ashraf M.W., Tayyaba S., Afzulpurkar N. Micro electromechanical systems (MEMS) based microfluidic devices for biomedical applications. Besides, the attack angle of the valve has a critical role in the performance of the pump. In order to understand the effect of increasing length on the flow rate, the streamlines shown in Figure 6 should be considered. The maximum resulting stress is obtained when the valve length and width are maximum and minimum, respectively. The corresponding flow rates are 11.1 and 5.9 L/min, respectively. Thus, the inlet valves can be easily opened due to the force exerted by the fluid flow. Accordingly, the corresponding valve should be under the open condition, which allows the fluid to flow towards the main chamber. HVC Series Valves, Live Cell Imaging Fluidic System Hydrodynamic function of polyurethane prosthetic heart valves: Influences of Youngs modulus and leaflet thickness. Metals are not used as wetted materials so this pump is highly chemically inert. They applied a frequency of 100 Hz with a current of 0.3 A and reported a 30-m displacement in diaphragm and 6-L/s maximum flow rate. Takasago Electric, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Furthermore, in an attempt to propose a potential material to be used as valves, polyester urethanes (PU) could be a suitable candidate [31]. Shen et al. In order to perform an accurate simulation, the mesh elements around the valves are finer. Figure 9a shows the effect of the width of the valve on the flow rate for three different valve lengths (i.e., 120, 130, 140 m). However, at the same time, the right-side valve should be closed to confine the reverse flow from the outlet. Before The elastic behavior is taken into account in Equations (3)(8). (a) Downward motion (b) Upward motion. When the piezoelectric component moves upwards, the fluid should be supplied from the left side. e11E is the elastic stiffness (Youngs modulus) at constant electric field, while 33s is the electric permittivity under the constant strain condition, and e31 is the piezoelectric constant. As the Youngs modulus of the material decreases, it is expected that the optimum width increases since the valve will move easily. The optimum width of the valve is dependent on the material as well. Variation of the obtained flow rate with the valve length (hp) for three valve widths (w); (Lp = 5mm, V = 400 V). A built-in magnet enables the pump cartridge to be easily removed from and attached to an actuator with a piezoelectric element.This makes the pump sanitary, since it is possible to exchange the cartridge according to the fluid type, or sterilizing it prior to use. Based on the obtained low maximum stress, the occurrence of failures due to fatigue after a specific cycle is not expected. Even though the 3-D modeling may provide more accurate results, it does not seem to be very practical when considering the computational time and cost. The optimum width of the valve is 4 m for the length of 120 m. Variation of the obtained flow rate with piezoelectric component length (Lp) for two valve widths (w); (a) (V = 400 V and hp = 130 m); (b) (V = 200 V and hp = 130 m). Modify flow rate by adjusting drive voltage or frequency. Contact ustoday to see how. Therefore, it can be concluded that when the length of the valve increases, the flow rate increases as well. At Boreas, we deliver the most power efficient piezo driver for piezoelectric micropump that meets the needs of many industries. Moreover, a very weak relationship can be found between the optimum width and attack angle of the valve. The working principle of the piezoelectric micropumps is similar to the reciprocating macro-scale pumps, where both the inlet and outlet are closed during the discharge and suction strokes, respectively. This research received no external funding. Design of a piezoelectric-hydraulic pump with active valves. Piezoelectric micro-pumps offer many applications and could provide considerable flow rates in miniature systems. is the Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, which is related to the Green Lagrangian strain tensor G: where sands are Lam constants of the elastic material. It enables the pump to deliver a constant flow rate by operating the pump with constant voltage and frequency, generated by a supply of direct current voltage. Considering that these assumptions lead to a higher flow rate than the experimental data, this deviation could be due to the increase in the energy loss at the interface, when the applied frequency increases. First, the voltage is applied to the piezoelectric material, and the displacement and velocity are calculated. The results show that the performance of the pump is relatively low at the lower applied voltages. These micro-pumps can only pump conductive fluids. For instance, valves are unnecessary in some microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) applications. T1 is the stress, and S1 is the strain along the length of beam. Analytical analysis of a circular unimorph piezoelectric actuator in the range of low voltages and pressures. The other governing equations consider the bending effect of the valve. The optimum valve width corresponds to approximately the same value for all the voltages. Experimental analysis of a valve-less piezoelectric micropump with crescent-shaped structure. Accessibility Additionally, the effects of various parameters including the length, width, and attack angle of the valves, piezoelectric length, and applied voltage on the piezoelectric device are displayed. For instance, for a piezoelectric pump, which has a 5 mm long piezo-component, the achieved flow rates are 2.1, 4.6, 10.7 L/min for the valve lengths of 120, 130, and 140 m, respectively, at the applied voltage of 400 V, angle of 45, and width of 10 m. There are inputs, which should be introduced to the model and are summarized in Table 1. ; methodology, A.A.; project administration: A.K., A.A., and V.E.A. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal The attack angle of the valves plays a very crucial role in the efficiency of the pump. Gidde R.R., Pawar P.M., Ronge B.P., Dhamgaye V.P. 24 October 1996; pp. [23] developed a pump which was able to provide 15 L/min and 6.4 kPa maximum flow rate and back pressure at 90 V voltage and 30 Hz frequency, respectively. The new PMC design is here! As a result, the trapped water inside the channel can leave the channel from the outlet valve. Westborough, MA 01581 U.S.A. The authors declare no conflict of interest. The other reason is that when the length of the piezoelectric material increases, the displacement increases as well, and the frequency of the AC voltage results in a bigger velocity magnitude at the interface. Moreover, stress analysis in the valves show that the resulting stresses are relatively small and a failure due to fatigue is not expected. Thereafter, Esashi et al. Figure 9b shows the flow rate with respect to the valve widths for three different voltages (i.e., V = 400, 300, and 200 V) and one specific length (hp = 130 m). Over the past few decades, the developments in the Micro-electro-mechanical Systems (MEMS) technology have realized the implementation of microfluidic devices to a wide range of applications such as drug delivery systems [1], micro-mixing [2] and particle manipulation [3], among others. Additionally, assuming the classical beam theory (linear Euler-Bernoulli) with poling the piezoelectric through the thickness, the governing equations of one-dimensional electro-mechanical coupling are as follows: In these equations, the subscripts 1 and 3 stand for the directions of the length and thickness of the beam. and transmitted securely. Electronic wearables and printers are just a few examples of technology consumers interact with daily. On the other hand, there is no moving mechanical part in non-mechanical micro-pumps, which are capable of converting the non-mechanical energy into the mechanical energy. ; writing (original draft preparation), A.A. and V.E.A. The optimum is 6 m for the lengths of 130 and 140 m. Biotechnology, Thruster Valves for Satellite Propulsion Systems, HVA/HVAL Series Valves The implemented voltage or frequency to the piezoelectric device adjusts the flow rate in piezoelectric micro-pumps. For instance, magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) micro-pumps involve the flow of electrically conducting fluid under electric and magnetic fields [6]. 261268. The comparison of the numerical results with the experimental data shows that these assumptions result in a maximum error of 14.01% at the applied frequencies between 50 and 400 Hz. As the attack angle increases from 0 to 90, the applied drag force on the valve increases. 98TH8388); Nagoya, Japan. That makes them useful in several industries and more uses are likely on the horizon. First, the flow will be blocked at the side, where the flow rate is required. In this case, the corresponding maximum stress is 31.68 kPa for the attack angle of the valve of 75, applied voltage of 400 V, width and length of the valve of 4 and 140 m, respectively, and the length of the piezoelectric component of 5 mm. The case with 14,530 cells provides a reasonable computation time and results since there is only a 2.4% difference in flow rate between the selected and finest mesh configurations. Zengerle R., Ulrich J., Kluge S., Richter M., Richter A. Figure 10b displays the effect of the attack angle of the outlet valve. As global climate change intensifies, alternative fuel technology like fuel cellsare receiving increasing attention and piezoelectric micropumps are playing a critical role in their development. Some diagnostic medical applicationsthat employ piezo micropumps include: Their low power consumption also makes them an ideal choice for portable medical devices, as the pump's energy requirements are unlikely to drain batteries any time soon. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies In this study, the applied frequency to the piezoelectric material is fixed as 50 Hz in all the cases. This piezoelectric micro pump is a delivery pump, which uses highly chemically inert materials such as PTFE, PEEK, FFKM, etc. Learn more The site is secure. 255260. According to the results, as the attack angle of the valves increases, the maximum applied stress grows accordingly. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the ; writing (review and editing), A.K. TEL +1 508 983 1434 HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Piezoelectric hydraulic pump system dynamic model. Here, we simulated the corresponding domain under the abovementioned assumptions. The implementation of the MEMS technology gives rise to generate high-efficiency microfluidic tools for satisfying the needs in the biomedical industry. Figure 1 shows the cross-sectional view of a silicon-based piezoelectric micro-pump, which operates in two-step cycles. Malvandi A., Ganji D. Magnetohydrodynamic mixed convective flow of Al2O3water nanofluid inside a vertical microtube. In an innovative manner, the magnetic actuation of ferrofluids was also used in micro-pumping by taking the advantage of dynamic magnetic fields [7,8]. Zengerle et al. The piezoelectric micro-pumps equipped with valves consist of a pumping chamber with a diaphragm (pumping membrane), a microchannel and two check valves [15,16,17]. The mechanical energy at the interface of the piezoelectric wafer results in fluid flow inside the microchannel. Unlike the typical designs, where the valves are fully closed and perpendicular to the fluid flow direction, the valves are not fully closed in this design, where there is an attack angle between the valves and fluid flow. Figure 7 presents the obtained flow rate for three valve widths (i.e., 6, 8, and 10 m) and lengths ranging from 120 to 140 m. Next, they must ensure that each transfer rate flows exactly at the velocity dictated by the reaction kinetics so that electrical generation will occur. Moreover, the interaction between the working fluid and valves results in bending of the valves, whose presence is necessary to avoid symmetry. FAX +81 52 891 7386, (d/b/a Takasago Fluidic Systems) ), 2Sabanci University Nanotechnology and Applications Center (SUNUM), Sabanci University, Tuzla, Istanbul 34956, Turkey, 3Center of Excellence for Functional Surfaces and Interfaces for Nano-Diagnostics (EFSUN), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect. Many testing devices will use micropumps in syringes to deliver a minuscule, precise fluid quantity onto a sensor or substrate, often in droplet amounts. The governing equations include the Gausss law and elastic behavior of material. Piezoelectrical micropumps can be found in some residential applications as well. Additionally, due to the small dimensions of the pump, the effect of gravity is neglected. One of the most important features to be considered in the mentioned design is the stress analysis in the valves. Lee D.G., Or S.W., Carman G.P. Figure 5a shows that the simulated model consists of tetrahedral elements for both the fluid and solid domains. The drag force due to the velocity and pressure field are considered as external forces in the governing equations related to solid mechanics. ; formal analysis, A.K., A.A., and V.E.A. As can be seen in Figure 4, as the applied frequency increases, the deviation of the model from the experimental data becomes larger. This pump was able to provide flow rate and back pressure of 8 L/min and 9.8 kPa, respectively, when 125 V voltage and 1 Hz frequency were applied. Esashi M., Shoji S., Nakano A. government site. Figure 12 shows the effect of the applied voltage. Figure 7 demonstrates that the increased blocked region with longer valves is more effective in providing a larger flow rate compared to the configurations with a shorter valve. Bar-Cohen Y., Anderson I.A. The most common modes of mechanical piezoelectric actuation are: Piezoelectrics can generate all three actuation methods. Micro Pumps for Infusion/Drug Delivery Systems, Reagent-Prefillable Disposable Fluidic System, Manually Adjustable Low Pulsation Micro Pump Unit, Micro Pumps for Infusion/Drug Delivery System, TYGON 2001 (for use with methanol, water, and most general uses), TYGON 2375 (for use with methanol, water, and most general substances). The valves and other boundaries of the channel are considered as wall boundary condition. Micro 3D Perfusion Culture System Note 2: TYGON is a trademark of Saint-Gobain Performance Plastics. To explain what a piezoelectric micropump is, it helps to lay a foundation of micropump technology as a whole. From a modeling analysis perspective, a piezoelectric pump has three main parts: the working fluid, valves, and piezoelectric material, which is responsible for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. The valves are elastic materials, which are assumed to be fixed at the walls. The .gov means its official. IV pumps often use peristaltic micropumps to administer lifesaving medications, and piezoelectric pumps are one way that they do it. Figure 6 illustrates the velocity field and streamlines of the working fluid for the suction state (i.e., the piezo component at the top). With the application of the electrical potential (V) to the piezoelectric wafer with thickness of (t), the electric field (), expressed as =Vt, makes the wafer shrink in the radial direction with free strain. about navigating our updated article layout. Pumping force must also be considered, as the piezoelectric material can be stacked between a series of voltage sources in a sandwich structure, effectively putting multiple micropump units into a series configuration. The designed piezoelectric micropump in this study can be used in many applications such as local medical treatment and drug delivery systems, where the supply of a controlled flow rate is vital. In other words, in this case, the right-side valve should be open to enable fluid to flow outwards, and the inlet valve should be closed to prevent the fluid flow at the left-side to the inlet. First, they must deliver the air and the fuel to their respective electrodes so that the reactions may occur. Shi H., Zhao Y., Liu Z. Modeling of ferrofluid magnetic actuation with dynamic magnetic fields in small channels. Instead, the piezoelectric micro-pumps are able to take the advantage of the passive valves, which can be deformed due to the interaction between the solid and fluid [29]. ; validation, A.A., V.E.A. The charge conservation equations are given as: here, is the electrical field, V is the applied voltage, v is the charge density, and D is the electrical permittivity of the material. A bidirectional silicon micropump. The longer piezoelectric actuator results in bigger displacement and flow area, which results in larger flow rates. As the width of the valves increases, its tendency for bending decreases. Please note, comments must be approved before they are published. Another example of a non-mechanical micro-pump is electro-hydrodynamic (EHD) micro-pumps, which induce fluid flow through the action of electrostatic forces on dielectric liquids [9]. Wang Y.-N., Fu L.-M. Micropumps and biomedical applicationsA review. There are two types of micropumps: nonmechanical and mechanical. An electrical load is generated in the process, but for it to work, a micropump must be used to achieve two things. A larger voltage difference results in larger flow rates since bigger displacement at the interface of the fluid and the piezoelectric material can be achieved when applying higher voltages. The other parameter is the width of the valve. They are linked to the Young modulus E and Poissons coefficient s. Figure 5b demonstrates the variation of flow rate with respect to the total mesh numbers. At the inlet and outlet of the pump, the outlet boundary condition is considered, which results in free movement of water to inside and outside of the channel. Even though increasing the piezoelectric length and operating voltage raise the flow rate, the modification of valve dimensions is more efficient since these parameters do not rely on any external power. Yu-feng et al. It usually has a very simple structure and requires only a few components, like: Although the structure is generally simple, several important parameters must be considered for piezo micropumps to perform according to spec. The results show that as the length of the valve increases, larger flow rates could be obtained from the piezoelectric micro-pump. In this study, the effects of major parameters on the performance of a piezoelectric actuated pump are investigated. As an important result, the optimum width is almost independent of the flow rate, which ensures us to have optimum flow rates in a wide range of working conditions. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted As indicated in the results, the maximum flow rate of the micro-pump depends on the design of its components and operation conditions. Cazorla P.-H., Fuchs O., Cochet M., Maubert S., Le Rhun G., Robert P., Fouillet Y., Defay E. Piezoelectric micro-pump with PZT thin film for low consumption microfluidic devices. According to the operation mechanism, micro-pumps are categorized in two branches: mechanical and non-mechanical micro-pumps. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. After switching the voltage off, the pump membrane moves upwards resulting in a decrease in pressure. The main advantages of piezoelectric micro-pumps include low noise [18] and energy consumption [19]. An official website of the United States government. Nevertheless, the outlet valve bends in such a way that it blocks the flow at the outlet, due to the fluid momentum. No. One of its most common applications is micropumps in specialized fluid transfer. Conceptualization, A.K., A.A., V.E.A. [25] with passive valves provided 1500 L/min flow rate and 1 kPa back pressure. More about those later on. In this article, we'll take a look at all that and more. According to the obtained results, as the length of the working valves increases, the provided flow rate becomes larger. Moreover, when the width is changed to 8 m, the optimum angle becomes 65, which results in a flowrate of 14.0 L/min. It is a high voltage circuit board, specifically designed for the piezoelectric micro pumps. For instance, when the attack angle corresponding to the width of 8 m of the inlet changes from 65 to 60, the flow rate shrinks from 14.0 to 13.7 L/m, which corresponds to 1.8% change in the flow rate compared to a 8.3% change in the attack angle. This is a miniature, slim, and lightweight diaphragm micro pump driven by a piezoelectric element. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. For instance, when the length of the valve is 120 m and the attack angle changes from 30 to 75, the obtained optimum width remains as approximately 4 m for all the cases. The first piezoelectric pump was fabricated using micromachining methods by Van Lintel et al. Even though 2-D simulation results in a 25% underestimation of pressure drop in the pump, with respect to 3-D simulation, it results in reducing the computational time of each solution by more than 40 times. Moreover, when the piezoelectric component moves downwards, the situation becomes reverse. With the use of the attack angle and the length of the valves as design parameters, the studied design shows promising results. Each one has different mechanisms by which it achieves fluid transport. Olsson A., Stemme G., Stemme E. A valve-less planar fluid pump with two pump chambers. Valve-less piezoelectric micropumps were studied experimentally and numerically [12,13,14]. 1Faculty of Engineering and Natural Science, Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; [emailprotected] (A.A.); [emailprotected] (V.E.A. Mohith S., Karanth P.N., Kulkarni S. Recent trends in mechanical micropumps and their applications: A review. Zhang T., Wang Q.-M. Valveless piezoelectric micropump for fuel delivery in direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) devices. (a) Applied meshes to the piezoelectric component (b) Applied tetrahedral elements in rest of the simulated models, (c) Variation of flow rate for different mesh numbers. [26] studied a parallel dynamic micro-pump comprising a valve, electro-magnetic coil and diaphragm. But what exactly is a piezoelectric micropump, and how does it work? Note 1: Details such as specifications, etc., may be changed without notice. To avoid computational costs, all the results of the parametric study are provided from 2-D numerical modeling. another interesting application for piezoelectric materials in consumer applications is haptics. The above equations are solved using the FEM (finite element method) and software COMSOL Multiphysics 5.5. Miniaturized PMMA ball-valve micropump with cylindrical electromagnetic actuator. Considering the fact that the working fluid is incompressible, the governing equations for the fluid flow are stated as: where f is the density of fluid, u is the velocity vector of the fluid, um is the velocity of the mesh, t is time, p pressure, and f the viscosity of the fluid. Low power consumption and noise. This feature can adjust the flow rate without using any external force. for the wetted parts in order to improve its chemical inertness of standard piezoelectric micro pumps. Thus, they consist of conservation of mass and conservation of momentum. From naturally occurring minerals like topaz and quartz to artificial metals and ceramics, there is a special class of materials that generate electricity upon mechanical deformation. From high-powered electronics to the fuel delivery systems that will power our future to lifesaving biomedical applications, our piezo drivers can take your fluid transfer project to the next level. will also be available for a limited time. Received 2020 Jul 13; Accepted 2020 Jul 30. Dialysis Apparatus In other words, when the piezoelectric component moves upwards, the longer valve blocks more water at the left-side compared to the shorter valve. As shown in the figure, there exists a critical value for the width of the valve, where the flow rate is maximum. Our numerical results show that the optimum attack angle can be predicted from the known width and length of the valve. However, two drawbacks appear upon the increase in the attack angle. TEL +81 52 891 2301 8600 Rockville Pike You'll find them in industries ranging from the drug delivery sector to the alternative fuels market. The operation of valve blocking when the piezoelectric component moves upwards (Lp = 5 mm, w = 6 m, hp = 130 m, V = 400 V). Dereshgi H.A., Dal H., Sayan M.E. Moreover, based on the length, Youngs modulus, and attack angle of the valve, an optimum width can be predicted for the width of the valve. Huang J., Zou L., Tian P., Zhang Q., Wang Y., Zhang J.-H. A valveless piezoelectric micropump based on projection micro litho stereo exposure technology. Based on the results in Figure 9 and the attack angle dependency, the optimum width of the valve is mainly dependent on the length of the valves rather than other parameters. However, when the width decreases down to a level below a critical value, the valve overbends at the side, it drives the fluid instead of blocking it, as can be seen in Figure 8. No. 1900 West Park Drive, Suite 280, First, as the effective domain of the flow rate increases, the flow rate will increase as well, due to expression Q=udA. Erdem K., Ahmadi V.E., Kosar A., Kuddusi L. Differential Sorting of Microparticles Using Spiral Microchannels with Elliptic Configurations. Characterized by their relatively low flow rates and often laminar flow, micropumps are any class of pump that transfers a small fluid volume across a space. It is user-friendly with a front panel digital display for configuring the output voltage and output frequency, and a memory function to store the most recently used settings. These pumps are typically based on thermo-pneumatic, shape memory alloy, or thermally expandable polymer mechanisms [11]. Thus far, many micro-pump designs have been accomplished with various structures and operating mechanisms [4]. The inverse piezoelectric effect involves the motion of piezoelectric material as a voltage is applied on each end, allowing a diaphragm to contract and expand upon an electrical stimulus. The results show that these parameters significantly affect the performance of the designed micro-pump. These designs change from one application to another based on the requirements and working conditions [5]. D3 is the electric displacement, and 3 is the electric field through the thickness of the piezoelectric layer. Generally, piezoelectric actuators do not require any high voltage to operate. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. 235240. Moreover, it is worthwhile to state that ALE (Arbitrary Lagrangian and Eulerian) moving mesh is applied to the fluid domain to track the displacement of the valves. Variation of the obtained flow rate with valve attack angle () for two valve widths (w); (Lp = 5mm, V = 400 V); (a) inlet valve; (b) outlet valve. The MPD-200A is a thin, compact, and lightweight driver board.

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